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Gas ... High-density atomic gases super cooled to incredibly low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as either a Bose gas or a Fermi gas... Their detailed studies ultimately led to a mathematical relationship among these properties expressed by the ideal gas law (see simplified models section below)... Gas particles are widely separated from one another, and as such are not as strongly intermolecularly bonded to the same degree as liquids or solids...

Fuel ... Perhaps the earliest fuel employed by humans is wood. Evidence shows controlled fire was used up to 1.5 million years ago at Swartkrans, South Africa...

Fossil Fuel ... It was estimated by the Energy Information Administration that in 2007 primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.0%, coal 27.4%, natural gas 23.0%, amounting to an 86.4% share for fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the world...

Real Gas ... Where P is the pressure, T is the temperature, R the ideal gas constant, and Vm the molar volume. a and b are parameters that are determined empirically for each gas, but are sometimes estimated from their critical temperature (Tc) and critical pressure (Pc) using these relations:...

Van Der Waals Force ... All intermolecular/van der Waals forces are anisotropic (except those between two noble gas atoms), which means that they depend on the relative orientation of the molecules... When molecules are in thermal motion, as they are in the gas and liquid phase, the electrostatic force is averaged out to a large extent, because the molecules thermally rotate and thus probe both repulsive and attractive parts of the electrostatic force...

Nuclear Fuel ... Most nuclear fuels contain heavy fissile elements that are capable of nuclear fission. When these fuels are struck by neutrons, they are in turn capable of emitting neutrons when they break apart...

Alternative Fuel Vehicle ... 14.7 million natural gas vehicles by December 2011, led by Iran with 2.86 million, Pakistan (2.85 million), Argentina (2.04 million), Brazil (1.7 million), and India (1.1 million)...

Compressibility Factor ... In many real world applications requirements for accuracy demand that deviations from ideal gas behaviour, i.e., real gas behaviour, is taken into account... This allows repulsive forces between molecules to have a noticeable effect, making the molar volume of the real gas greater than the molar volume of the corresponding ideal gas, which causes to exceed one... The closer the gas is to its critical point or its boiling point, the more deviates from the ideal case...

MOX Fuel ... One attraction of MOX fuel is that it is a way of utilizing surplus weapons-grade plutonium, an alternative to storage of surplus plutonium, which would need to be secured against the risk of theft for use in nuclear weapons. On the other hand, some studies warned that normalising the global commercial use of MOX fuel and the associated expansion of nuclear reprocessing will increase, rather than reduce, the risk of nuclear proliferation, by encouraging increased separation of plutonium from spent fuel in the civil nuclear fuel cycle...

Charles's Law ... His statement of the law can be expressed mathematically as: where V100 is the volume occupied by a given sample of gas at 100 °C; V0 is the volume occupied by the same sample of gas at 0 °C; and k is a constant which is the same for all gases at constant pressure...

Thermodynamic Equilibrium ... Thermodynamics Branches Classical · Statistical · Chemical Equilibrium / Non-equilibrium Thermofluids Laws Zeroth · First · Second · Third Systems State: Equation of state Ideal gas · Real gas Phase of matter · Equilibrium Control volume · Instruments Processes: Isobaric · Isochoric · Isothermal Adiabatic · Isentropic · Isenthalpic Quasistatic · Polytropic Free expansion Reversibility · Irreversibility Endoreversibility Cycles: Heat engines · Heat pumps Thermal efficiency System properties Property diagrams Intensive and extensive properties State functions: Temperature / Entropy (intro.) † Pressure / Volume † Chemical potential / Particle no... † († Conjugate variables) Vapor quality Reduced properties Process functions: Work · Heat Material properties Specific heat capacity Compressibility Thermal expansion...

Automobile ... The term motorcar has also been used in the context of electrified rail systems to denote a car which functions as a small locomotive but also provides space for passengers and baggage. These locomotive cars were often used on suburban routes by both interurban and intercity railroad systems...

Turbulence ... Irregularity: Turbulent flows are always highly irregular. This is why turbulence problems are always treated statistically rather than deterministically...

Statistical Mechanics ... Statistical mechanics was initiated in 1870 with the work of Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann, much of which was collectively published in Boltzmann's 1896 Lectures on Gas Theory...

Dalton's Law ... Mathematically, the pressure of a mixture of gases can be defined as the summation or where represent the partial pressure of each component. It is assumed that the gases do not react with each other...

Second Generation Biofuels ... Many first generation biofuels are dependent of subsidies and are not cost competitive with existing fossil fuels such as oil, and some of them produce only limited greenhouse gas emissions savings...

Kinetic Theory ... While the particles making up a gas are too small to be visible, the jittering motion of pollen grains or dust particles which can be seen under a microscope, known as Brownian motion, results directly from collisions between the particle and gas molecules... Postulates The theory for ideal gases makes the following assumptions: The gas consists of very small particles... This smallness of their size is such that the total volume of the individual gas molecules added up is negligible compared to the volume of the container...

Biofuel ... Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as corn or sugarcane. Cellulosic biomass, derived from non-food sources such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol production...

Gay-Lussac's Law ... In addition to Gay-Lussac's results, Amedeo Avogadro theorized that, at the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gas contain equal numbers of molecules (Avogadro's law)... Pressure-temperature law Gay-Lussac's name is also associated — erroneously — with another gas law, the so-called pressure law, which states that:...

Perfect Gas ... A thermally perfect gas is in thermodynamic equilibrium is not chemically reacting has internal energy e, enthalpy h, and specific heat Cv that are functions of temperature only and not of pressure, i.e., ... This type of approximation is useful for modeling, for example, an axial compressor where temperature fluctuations are usually not large enough to cause any significant deviations from the thermally perfect gas model... Even more restricted is the calorically perfect gas for which, in addition, the specific heat is assumed to be constant: and ...

Effects Of The Automobile On Societies ... The effects of the automobile on everyday life have been a subject of controversy. While the introduction of the mass-produced automobile represented a revolution in mobility and convenience, the modern consequences of heavy automotive use contribute to the use of non-renewable fuels, a dramatic increase in the rate of accidental death, social isolation, the disconnection of community, the rise in obesity, the generation of air & noise pollution, urban sprawl, and urban decay...

Gasification ... Syngas may be burned directly in gas engines, used to produce methanol and hydrogen, or converted via the Fischer-Tropsch process into synthetic fuel... In addition, the high-temperature process refines out corrosive ash elements such as chloride and potassium, allowing clean gas production from otherwise problematic fuels... Initially developed to produce town gas for lighting & cooking in 1800s, this was replaced by electricity and natural gas, it was also used in blast furnaces but the bigger role was played in the production of synthetic chemicals where it has been in use since the 1920s...

Pressure ... It is incorrect (although rather usual) to say "the pressure is directed in such or such direction". The pressure, as a scalar, has no direction...

Density ... Less dense fluids float on more dense fluids if they do not mix. This concept can be extended, with some care, to less dense solids floating on more dense fluids...

Avogadro's Law ... Thus, the number of molecules or atoms in a specific volume of gas is independent of their size or the molar mass of the gas... As an example, equal volumes of molecular hydrogen and nitrogen contain the same number of molecules when they are at the same temperature and pressure, and observe ideal gas behavior... Mathematical definition Avogadro's law is stated mathematically as: Where: V is the volume of the gas...