Brass Era Car ... This system specified front-engined, rear-wheel drive internal combustion engined cars with a sliding gear transmission...
Automotive Industry By Country ... The United States was the world's largest automobile producer by volume from the early years of the 20th century until the 1980s, when it was overtaken by Japan. In 2009 China became the world's largest vehicle producer...
Automotive Market In The United States ... With the high fuel prices and the world petroleum crisis, the United States has seen its automotive market become more like the European market with fewer large vehicles on the road and more small cars... For luxurious cars, with the current volatility in oil prices, going for smaller cars is not only smart, but also trendy... And because fashion is of high importance with the upper classes, the little green cars with luxury trimmings become quite plausible ...
Road Traffic Safety ... The standard measures used in assessing road safety interventions are fatalities and Killed or Seriously Injured (KSI) rates, usually per billion (109) passenger kilometres. Countries caught in the old road safety paradigm, replace KSI rates with crash rates - for example, crashes per million vehicle miles...
Hybrid Electric Vehicle ... Modern HEVs make use of efficiency-improving technologies such as regenerative braking, which converts the vehicle's kinetic energy into electric energy to charge the battery, rather than wasting it as heat energy as conventional brakes do. Some varieties of HEVs use their internal combustion engine to generate electricity by spinning an electrical generator (this combination is known as a motor-generator), to either recharge their batteries or to directly power the electric drive motors...
Mitigation Of Peak Oil ... For the most part, mitigation involves fuel conservation, and the use of alternative and renewable energy sources. The development of unconventional oil resources can extend the use of petroleum, but does not reduce consumption...
Automotive Lighting ... Use of the front fog lamps when visibility is not seriously reduced is often prohibited (for example in the United Kingdom), as they can cause increased glare to other drivers, particularly in wet pavement conditions, as well as harming the driver's own vision due to excessive foreground illumination. The respective purposes of front fog lamps and driving lamps are often confused, due in part to the misconception that fog lamps are necessarily selective yellow, while any auxiliary lamp that makes white light is a driving lamp...
Automobile ... These locomotive cars were often used on suburban routes by both interurban and intercity railroad systems... Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007; the engines of these burn over a billion cubic meters (260 billion US gallons) of petrol/gasoline and diesel fuel yearly...
Biodiesel ... Biodiesel is meant to be used in standard diesel engines and is thus distinct from the vegetable and waste oils used to fuel converted diesel engines. Biodiesel can be used alone, or blended with petrodiesel...
Automotive Industry In Iran ... Since then, Iran has developed its domestic industry where it can design and assemble cars on its own, including a new car factory in Kashan...
Wood Gas ... Wood can be used to power cars with ordinary internal combustion engines if a wood gasifier is attached...
Alcohol Fuel ... Most methanol is produced from natural gas, although it can be produced from biomass using very similar chemical processes. Ethanol is commonly produced from biological material through fermentation processes...
History Of Steam Road Vehicles ... Ferdinand Verbiest is suggested to have built what may have been the first steam powered car in about 1672, but very little concrete information on this is known to exist. During the latter part of the 18th century, there were numerous attempts to produce self-propelled steerable vehicles...
Future Car Technologies ... Advanced control Platoons of cars that are controlled by the lead car Vehicle infrastructure integration Driverless car Energy sources One major problem in developing cleaner, energy efficient automobiles is the source of power to drive the engine... A variety of alternative fuel vehicles have been proposed or sold, including electric cars, hydrogen cars, compressed-air cars and liquid nitrogen cars...
Second Generation Biofuels ... First generation biofuels are made from the sugars and vegetable oils found in arable crops, which can be easily extracted using conventional technology. In comparison, second generation biofuels are made from lignocellulosic biomass or woody crops, agricultural residues or waste, which makes it harder to extract the required fuel...
Economics Of Automobile Usage ... Public costs related to the automobile are several; effects related to emissions have received a lot of attention, however the impact of manufacturing and disposal is less well-understood. Private benefits/costs The benefits of using a car differ by many factors, in regard to location and culture...
Peak Oil ... This concept is based on the observed production rates of individual oil wells, projected reserves and the combined production rate of a field of related oil wells. In order to understand physical Peak oil, the growing effort for production must be considered...
Further Reading: Gas
Behavior Of Nuclear Fuel During A Reactor Accident ... According to one paper the following difference between the cladding failure mode of unused and used fuel was seen. Unirradiated fuel rods were pressurized before being placed in a special reactor at the Japanese Nuclear Safety Research Reactor (NSRR) where they were subjected to a simulated RIA transient...
Density ... Less dense fluids float on more dense fluids if they do not mix. This concept can be extended, with some care, to less dense solids floating on more dense fluids...
Real Gas ... Where P is the pressure, T is the temperature, R the ideal gas constant, and Vm the molar volume. a and b are parameters that are determined empirically for each gas, but are sometimes estimated from their critical temperature (Tc) and critical pressure (Pc) using these relations:...
Fossil Fuel ... It was estimated by the Energy Information Administration that in 2007 primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.0%, coal 27.4%, natural gas 23.0%, amounting to an 86.4% share for fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the world...
Biofuel ... Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as corn or sugarcane. Cellulosic biomass, derived from non-food sources such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol production...
Pressure ... It is incorrect (although rather usual) to say "the pressure is directed in such or such direction". The pressure, as a scalar, has no direction...
Viscosity ... Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid friction. For example, high-viscosity felsic magma will create a tall, steep stratovolcano, because it cannot flow far before it cools, while low-viscosity mafic lava will create a wide, shallow-sloped shield volcano...
Perfect Gas ... A thermally perfect gas is in thermodynamic equilibrium is not chemically reacting has internal energy e, enthalpy h, and specific heat Cv that are functions of temperature only and not of pressure, i.e., ... This type of approximation is useful for modeling, for example, an axial compressor where temperature fluctuations are usually not large enough to cause any significant deviations from the thermally perfect gas model... Even more restricted is the calorically perfect gas for which, in addition, the specific heat is assumed to be constant: and ...
Gas ... High-density atomic gases super cooled to incredibly low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as either a Bose gas or a Fermi gas... Their detailed studies ultimately led to a mathematical relationship among these properties expressed by the ideal gas law (see simplified models section below)... Gas particles are widely separated from one another, and as such are not as strongly intermolecularly bonded to the same degree as liquids or solids...
Thermodynamic Equilibrium ... Thermodynamics Branches Classical · Statistical · Chemical Equilibrium / Non-equilibrium Thermofluids Laws Zeroth · First · Second · Third Systems State: Equation of state Ideal gas · Real gas Phase of matter · Equilibrium Control volume · Instruments Processes: Isobaric · Isochoric · Isothermal Adiabatic · Isentropic · Isenthalpic Quasistatic · Polytropic Free expansion Reversibility · Irreversibility Endoreversibility Cycles: Heat engines · Heat pumps Thermal efficiency System properties Property diagrams Intensive and extensive properties State functions: Temperature / Entropy (intro.) † Pressure / Volume † Chemical potential / Particle no... † († Conjugate variables) Vapor quality Reduced properties Process functions: Work · Heat Material properties Specific heat capacity Compressibility Thermal expansion...
Gay-Lussac's Law ... In addition to Gay-Lussac's results, Amedeo Avogadro theorized that, at the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gas contain equal numbers of molecules (Avogadro's law)... Pressure-temperature law Gay-Lussac's name is also associated — erroneously — with another gas law, the so-called pressure law, which states that:...
Charles's Law ... His statement of the law can be expressed mathematically as: where V100 is the volume occupied by a given sample of gas at 100 °C; V0 is the volume occupied by the same sample of gas at 0 °C; and k is a constant which is the same for all gases at constant pressure...
Gasification ... Syngas may be burned directly in gas engines, used to produce methanol and hydrogen, or converted via the Fischer-Tropsch process into synthetic fuel... In addition, the high-temperature process refines out corrosive ash elements such as chloride and potassium, allowing clean gas production from otherwise problematic fuels... Initially developed to produce town gas for lighting & cooking in 1800s, this was replaced by electricity and natural gas, it was also used in blast furnaces but the bigger role was played in the production of synthetic chemicals where it has been in use since the 1920s...
MOX Fuel ... One attraction of MOX fuel is that it is a way of utilizing surplus weapons-grade plutonium, an alternative to storage of surplus plutonium, which would need to be secured against the risk of theft for use in nuclear weapons. On the other hand, some studies warned that normalising the global commercial use of MOX fuel and the associated expansion of nuclear reprocessing will increase, rather than reduce, the risk of nuclear proliferation, by encouraging increased separation of plutonium from spent fuel in the civil nuclear fuel cycle...
Van Der Waals Force ... All intermolecular/van der Waals forces are anisotropic (except those between two noble gas atoms), which means that they depend on the relative orientation of the molecules... When molecules are in thermal motion, as they are in the gas and liquid phase, the electrostatic force is averaged out to a large extent, because the molecules thermally rotate and thus probe both repulsive and attractive parts of the electrostatic force...
Fuel ... Perhaps the earliest fuel employed by humans is wood. Evidence shows controlled fire was used up to 1.5 million years ago at Swartkrans, South Africa...
Kinetic Theory ... While the particles making up a gas are too small to be visible, the jittering motion of pollen grains or dust particles which can be seen under a microscope, known as Brownian motion, results directly from collisions between the particle and gas molecules... Postulates The theory for ideal gases makes the following assumptions: The gas consists of very small particles... This smallness of their size is such that the total volume of the individual gas molecules added up is negligible compared to the volume of the container...
Equation Of State ... The pressure of the gas could be determined by the difference between the mercury level in the short end of the tube and that in the long, open end... Mathematically, this can be represented for n species as: The ideal gas law (1834) In 1834 Émile Clapeyron combined Boyle's Law and Charles' law into the first statement of the ideal gas law... Initially the law was formulated as pVm = R (TC + 267) (with temperature expressed in degrees Celsius), where R is the gas constant...
Thermodynamic Temperature ... At its simplest, temperature arises from the kinetic energy of the vibrational motions of matter's particle constituents (molecules, atoms, and subatomic particles). The full variety of these kinetic motions, along with potential energies of particles, and also occasionally certain other types of particle energy in equilibrium with these, contribute the total thermal energy (loosely, the heat energy) within a substance...
Brownian Motion ... In 1827 the biologist Robert Brown noticed that if you looked at pollen grains in water through a microscope, the pollen jiggles about. He called this jiggling 'Brownian motion', but Brown couldn't work out what was causing it...
Dalton's Law ... Mathematically, the pressure of a mixture of gases can be defined as the summation or where represent the partial pressure of each component. It is assumed that the gases do not react with each other...
Avogadro's Law ... Thus, the number of molecules or atoms in a specific volume of gas is independent of their size or the molar mass of the gas... As an example, equal volumes of molecular hydrogen and nitrogen contain the same number of molecules when they are at the same temperature and pressure, and observe ideal gas behavior... Mathematical definition Avogadro's law is stated mathematically as: Where: V is the volume of the gas...
Statistical Mechanics ... Statistical mechanics was initiated in 1870 with the work of Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann, much of which was collectively published in Boltzmann's 1896 Lectures on Gas Theory...
Compressibility Factor ... In many real world applications requirements for accuracy demand that deviations from ideal gas behaviour, i.e., real gas behaviour, is taken into account... This allows repulsive forces between molecules to have a noticeable effect, making the molar volume of the real gas greater than the molar volume of the corresponding ideal gas, which causes to exceed one... The closer the gas is to its critical point or its boiling point, the more deviates from the ideal case...